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History of European research universities
European research universities date from the founding of the University of Bologna in 1088 or the University of Paris (c. 1160–70). In the 19th and 20th centuries, European universities concentrated upon science and research, their structures and philosophies having shaped the contemporary university. The original medieval universities arose from the Roman Catholic Church schools that became “the university." Their purposes included training professionals, scientific investigation, improving society, and teaching critical thinking and research. External influences, such as Renaissance humanism (c. mid-14th century), the Age of Enlightenment (18th century), the Protestant Reformation (1517), political revolution, and the discovery of the New World (1492) added human rights and international law to the university curricula.
By the 18th century, universities published academic journals; by the 19th century, the German and the French university models were established. The French established the Ecole Polytechnique in 1794 by the mathematician Gaspard Monge during the French Revolution, and it became a military academy under Napoleon I in 1804. The German university — the Humboldtian model — established by Wilhelm von Humboldt was based upon Friedrich Schleiermacher’s liberal ideas about the importance of freedom, seminars, and laboratories, which, like the French university model, involved strict discipline and control of every aspect of the university. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the universities concentrated upon science, but were not open to the general populace until after 1914. Moreover, until the 19th century’s end, religion exerted a significant, limiting influence upon academic curricula and research, by when the German university model had become the world standard. Elsewhere, the British also had established universities world-wide, thus making higher education available to the world’s populaces.
==The first European universities==
Historically, the University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is considered the “mother of European universities.” However, this claim was made as symbolic of Italian national unity, leading some to question the legitimacy of Bologna's claim to be the first university proper.〔Rüegg, "Themes", ''A History of the University in Europe, Vol. I, p. 5〕 If the term "university" requires that a single corporate body be made up of students and professors of different disciplines, rather than that a corporate body simply exists, the University of Paris, founded in 1208, can be considered the first university.〔Rüegg, "Themes", ''A History of the University in Europe, Vol. I, p. 6〕
The rediscovery of ancient Græco–Roman knowledge (e.g. Aristotle’s works and Roman law), led to the development of universitates (student guilds), and thus the establishment of the university in the contemporary sense.〔Rudy, ''The Universities of Europe, 1100-1914'', pp. 15–16〕 In turn, the traditional medieval universities — evolved from Catholic church schools — then established specialized academic structures for properly educating greater numbers of students as professionals. Prof. Walter Rüegg, editor of ''A History of the University in Europe'', reports that universities then only trained students to become clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians. 〔Rudy, ''The Universities of Europe, 1100-1914'', p. 40〕 Yet rediscovery of Classical-era knowledge transformed the university from the practical arts to developing “knowledge for the sake of knowledge”, which, by the 16th century, was considered integral to the civil community’s practical requirements.〔Rüegg, "Themes", ''A History of the University in Europe, Vol. II'', p.30〕 Hence, academic research was effected in furtherance of scientific investigation,〔Rüegg, "Themes", ''A History of the University in Europe, Vol. II, p. 7〕 because science had become essential to university curricula via “openness to novelty” in the search for the means to control nature to benefit civil society.〔Rüegg, "Themes", ''A History of the University in Europe, Vol. II, p. 15.〕
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